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KS3 English · Year 7Chapter 2 · Analysing language, structure and effect
Year 7 · Chapter 2

Analysing language, structure and effect

By the end of this chapter you will be able to

  • Separate the literal meaning of a word from its connotation
  • Name a device, and explain what it makes the reader picture or feel
  • Identify sentence types and lengths, and explain the effect of a short or a rhetorical sentence
  • Identify viewpoint and person, and explain how structure moves the reader
  • Judge the tone of a text, and evaluate the effect of a writer's choices with reasons

You should already know

  • Figurative language: simile, metaphor and personification (Year 6, Chapter 11)
  • Sentence types: statement, question, command, exclamation (Year 2 and Year 6 grammar)

Where this leads

  • Reading poetry: form, imagery and sound (Chapter 3 of this book)
  • Reading non-fiction: fact, opinion, bias and summary (Chapter 5 of this book)

National Curriculum for England, Key Stage 3 English, Year 7. Content: Analyse how word choice, sentence length, imagery, structure, viewpoint and tone contribute to meaning and effect (KS3 reading, R3), Explain the connotations of words, and the effect of a writer's choices on the reader (KS3 reading, R3), Evaluate the effect of a writer's choices, and judge how well they work (KS3 reading, R4).

Exercise P  Do you remember?

1
FWrite the word class of quickly in She ran quickly. Write one word.
2
FWhich device compares two things using like or as? Write one word.
3
RWhat is a rhetorical question? Write one sentence.
4
FWhat is the sentence type of Close the door.? Write one word.
5
FIs I in a story told by the narrator first person or third person? Write the answer.
2.1

Word choice: denotation and connotation

Year 7
Analyse how word choice contributes to meaning and effect (KS3 reading, R3), Explain the connotations of words (KS3 reading, R3)
Video lesson: Word choice: denotation and connotationComing soon
Story. A night market opens on Canal Street. The writer chooses each word carefully, so the reader can see, hear and smell the market.

The denotation of a word is its literal, dictionary meaning. Its connotations are the ideas and feelings it suggests. Two words with the same denotation can have very different connotations: thin and skeletal both describe a body that is not fat, but skeletal suggests illness or danger.

Text 1: The night market (original, descriptive)

1The night market began when the last shutters rattled up on Canal Street. Within minutes, the pavement had become a river of colour: silk scarves the shade of plums, lanterns swinging like small moons, and tables stacked with peaches that glowed under the bulbs.

2Music drifted from somewhere behind the stalls. A man shouted prices, quick and cheerful. Steam rose from a pan of noodles, and the smell of cinnamon hung in the cold air. Everyone seemed to be moving at once, and nobody seemed to mind.

3Then the crowd thinned. The vendor at the end of the row lowered her awning and sat down. She watched the empty street for a long moment. The lanterns flickered and went out one by one, like tired eyes closing. Silence crept back onto the cobbles.

Key ideas

  • Denotation is the literal meaning; connotation is the suggested meaning.
  • A writer chooses a word for its connotations, not only its meaning.
  • When you explain a word, say what it suggests and what effect it has on the reader.
Worked example 2.1.1
What does cheerful suggest about the seller, in A man shouted prices, quick and cheerful.? Give the connotation.

Method. Separate the literal meaning from the suggestion.

  1. Literal meaning. Cheerful means happy and in good spirits.
    happy
  2. Suggested meaning. The seller seems friendly, which makes the reader want to stop.
    friendly
  3. Connotation. The word suggests a welcoming seller.
    friendly and welcoming
  4. Write the answer.
    friendly and welcoming

Check. The connotation is linked to the text. ✓

Worked example 2.1.2
Why might the writer choose buried rather than covered, in buried under rubbish?

Method. Compare the two words.

  1. Literal meaning. Both words mean something is over or under something else.
    over or under
  2. Connotation of buried. Buried suggests the park is hidden and almost lost.
    hidden and almost lost
  3. Compare the effect. Covered would be milder; buried is stronger and more alarming.
    stronger and more alarming
  4. Write the answer.
    buried suggests the park is almost lost, which is stronger than covered

Check. The comparison explains the choice. ✓

Worked example 2.1.3
Which verb suggests the crowd is moving quickly? Choose one: drifted, rushed or waited.

Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.

  1. Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
  2. Test the choice. Rushed means hurrying, which suggests speed and energy.
    rushed fits
  3. Reject the other choices. Drifted suggests slow, gentle movement, and waited suggests stillness.
    drifted and waited do not fit
  4. Write the answer.
    rushed

Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: a connotation is an idea the word suggests, not the word repeated. Do not say "buried means buried".

Exam tip

Exam tip. For word choice, write the word, its suggested meaning, and the effect on the reader, in that order.

Exercise 2A  Practice: word choice and connotation

1
FWhat does rattled suggest, beyond its literal meaning? Use the phrase "rattled up on Canal Street".
2
FWhat does cheerful suggest, beyond its literal meaning? Use the phrase "quick and cheerful".
3
FWhat does tired suggest, beyond its literal meaning? Use the phrase "like tired eyes closing".
4
FWhat does shameful suggest, beyond its literal meaning? Use the phrase "It is a shameful one".
5
FWhich verb suggests the crowd is moving with the most energy? Choose one: drifted, rushed or waited.
6
FCopy the word from paragraph 3 that suggests the lanterns go out gently.
7
FWhich word in paragraph 3 suggests the ending is calm? Copy the word.
8
PSWhat does carpet suggest, beyond its literal meaning? Use the phrase "a carpet of crisp packets".
9
PSWhy might the writer choose overflow to describe the bins? Explain in one sentence.
10
PSAnswer both parts about overflow and cans in text 2.
(a)Copy the verb in paragraph 1 of text 2 that suggests the bins are full.
(b)Give one connotation of overflow, in two or three words.
11
RWhy might the writer choose "shameful" rather than "unfortunate"? Explain the difference in connotation.
12
FWhich phrase suggests more energy? Choose one: moving at once or moving slowly.
13
RThe writer of text 2 uses "shameful" and "ours". Explain the connotations of each, and the effect of using both.
2.2

Imagery: simile, metaphor and personification

Year 7
Analyse imagery, including simile, metaphor and personification, and its effect (KS3 reading, R3)
Video lesson: Imagery: simile, metaphor and personificationComing soon
Story. The market is full of colour, and the writer uses images to help the reader see it. Some images compare things directly; some give human actions to things.

Imagery is language that creates a picture in the reader's mind. A simile compares two things using like or as. A metaphor says one thing is another, without like or as. Personification gives human feelings or actions to something that is not human.

Key ideas

  • A simile uses like or as: the lanterns swing like small moons.
  • A metaphor says one thing is another: a river of colour.
  • Personification gives a human action to a thing: silence crept.
Worked example 2.2.1
Name the device in a river of colour, and say what makes it so.

Method. Look for like or as, then decide whether one thing is called another.

  1. Check for like or as. There is no like or as in the phrase.
    no like or as
  2. Check for one thing being another. The pavement is said to be a river.
    the pavement is a river
  3. Name the device. Saying one thing is another is a metaphor.
    metaphor
  4. Write the answer.
    metaphor

Check. The phrase says the pavement is a river. ✓

Worked example 2.2.2
What is the effect of lanterns swinging like small moons?

Method. Name the device, then say what the picture adds.

  1. Name the device. Like small moons is a simile.
    simile
  2. Picture the comparison. The lanterns are round and glowing, like moons.
    round and glowing
  3. Explain the effect. The image makes the market seem magical.
    magical
  4. Write the answer.
    the lanterns look round, bright and magical

Check. The simile creates a bright, magical picture. ✓

Worked example 2.2.3
Name the device in Silence crept back onto the cobbles., and explain its effect.

Method. Look for a human action given to a thing.

  1. Find the action. Silence crept, which is a human movement.
    crept
  2. Name the device. Giving a non-human thing a human action is personification.
    personification
  3. Explain the effect. Silence seems to return slowly and quietly.
    slowly and quietly
  4. Write the answer.
    personification: silence is given a slow, human action

Check. Silence is given a human action. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: a simile needs like or as. "The lanterns were like moons" is a simile; "the lanterns were moons" is a metaphor.

Exam tip

Exam tip. Name the device, quote it, then explain what it makes the reader picture or feel.

Exercise 2B  Practice: imagery and effect

1
FName the device in a river of colour.
2
FName the device in lanterns swinging like small moons.
3
FWhich device is Silence crept back onto the cobbles? Choose one: simile, metaphor or personification.
4
FWhat is the effect of peaches that glowed under the bulbs? Explain in one sentence.
5
FName the device in like tired eyes closing.
6
PSWhat is the effect of like tired eyes closing? Explain in one sentence.
7
FIs Everyone seemed to be moving at once a simile? Choose one: yes or no.
8
FName the device in a carpet of crisp packets.
9
PSWhat is the effect of buried under rubbish? Explain in one sentence.
10
RWhat is the effect of Think of the ducks that choke on plastic? Explain in one sentence.
11
RWhich image in text 1 creates the strongest picture? Explain your choice, with a reason.
12
FIs like small moons a metaphor or a simile? Write one word.
13
RWhich device would work best to describe a dull street: a simile, a metaphor or personification? Explain your choice.
2.3

Sentence structure, length and effect

Year 7
Analyse how sentence length and structure contribute to meaning and effect (KS3 reading, R3)
Video lesson: Sentence structure, length and effectComing soon
Story. The park is in trouble. A writer wants the reader to act, so the sentences change length and shape to push the reader forward.

Writers choose sentence types: a statement tells, a question asks, a command orders, and an exclamation shows strong feeling. They also vary the length. A short sentence creates emphasis or a pause. A list of three builds up a picture. A rhetorical question is asked for effect, so the reader thinks about the answer.

Text 2: Our park (original, persuasive)

1Every Friday, the park bins overflow, and the paths become a carpet of crisp packets and drink cans. Who decided that this was acceptable?

2We pay our taxes, we love our green spaces, and yet we allow them to be buried under rubbish. Think of the ducks that choke on plastic, the children who play near broken glass, and the grandparents who no longer sit on the benches.

3This is not a small problem. It is a shameful one, and it is ours to fix.

4Pick up one item today. Then ask a neighbour to do the same. Together, we can give our park back.

Key ideas

  • A short sentence creates emphasis and pace.
  • A list of three builds up a picture or an argument.
  • A rhetorical question makes the reader think, without needing an answer.
Worked example 2.3.1
What is the effect of the rhetorical question Who decided that this was acceptable??

Method. Name the sentence type, then say what it does.

  1. Name the type. It is a question, but no answer is needed.
    question
  2. Explain the purpose. The writer makes the reader think about who is to blame.
    who is to blame
  3. Explain the effect. The reader feels challenged and may feel responsible.
    feels challenged
  4. Write the answer.
    it makes the reader think and feel challenged

Check. The question is rhetorical. ✓

Worked example 2.3.2
What is the effect of the short sentence This is not a small problem.?

Method. Look at the length and the position of the sentence.

  1. Look at the length. It has only six words, after longer sentences.
    six words
  2. Look at the position. It comes after a question, so it sharpens the point.
    sharpens the point
  3. Explain the effect. The reader is given a firm, serious statement.
    firm, serious statement
  4. Write the answer.
    it creates emphasis and makes the problem seem serious

Check. The short sentence is emphatic. ✓

Worked example 2.3.3
What is the effect of the list of three in paragraph 2?

Method. Count the items, then consider how they build.

  1. Count the items. Ducks, children and grandparents: three groups.
    three groups
  2. Look at the build. Each group is harmed in a different way.
    in a different way
  3. Explain the effect. The list builds up a feeling of widespread harm.
    widespread harm
  4. Write the answer.
    it builds up a sense of harm, so the reader pictures many victims

Check. The list of three builds up the picture. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: a question is not always a question. A rhetorical question does not need an answer, and it is asked for effect.

Exam tip

Exam tip. When you comment on sentence length, say whether the sentence is short or long, and what the length does to the pace or emphasis.

Exercise 2C  Practice: sentence structure and effect

1
FHow many sentences are in paragraph 3 of text 1?
2
FHow many sentences are in paragraph 2 of text 1?
3
FWhat sentence type is Who decided that this was acceptable? Choose one: statement, question or command.
4
FWhat sentence type is Pick up one item today.? Write one word.
5
PSWhat is the effect of the rhetorical question Who decided that this was acceptable?? Explain in one sentence.
6
PSWhat is the effect of the short sentence This is not a small problem.? Explain in one sentence.
7
FCopy the first group in the list of three in paragraph 2.
8
PSWhat is the effect of the list of three in paragraph 2? Explain in one sentence.
9
FWrite the shortest sentence in paragraph 4 of text 2.
10
FHow many sentences are in paragraph 4 of text 2?
11
PSAnswer both parts about the sentence types in text 2.
(a)What sentence type is Every Friday, the park bins overflow, and the paths become a carpet of crisp packets and drink cans.? Write one word.
(b)What sentence type is Then ask a neighbour to do the same.? Write one word.
12
RHow do the sentence lengths in paragraph 4 of text 2 change the pace? Explain in one or two sentences.
2.4

Viewpoint, person and structure

Year 7
Analyse viewpoint and structure, and how they move the reader (KS3 reading, R3)
Video lesson: Viewpoint, person and structureComing soon
Story. A writer can tell a story from inside one character, or from outside. A persuasive writer can speak to the reader as part of a group.

Viewpoint is the position from which a text is told. First person uses I or we; third person uses he, she or they. A writer can also shape the structure, the order of ideas, so the reader moves from one feeling to the next.

Key ideas

  • First person uses I or we; third person uses he, she or they.
  • Third-person narration shows what a character does, but not always what they think.
  • Structure is the order of the text, such as from busy to quiet, or from problem to solution.
Worked example 2.4.1
Is text 1 written in first person or third person? Give one piece of evidence.

Method. Find the pronouns that refer to the characters.

  1. Find the pronoun. The text uses she, as in She watched the empty street.
    she watched
  2. Check the pronoun. She is a third-person pronoun.
    she
  3. Name the viewpoint. The narrator is outside the character.
    third person
  4. Write the answer.
    third person

Check. She watched is third person. ✓

Worked example 2.4.2
What is the viewpoint of text 2, and what does it do? Use the pronoun "we" in your answer.

Method. Find the pronoun, then say who it includes.

  1. Find the pronoun. We pay our taxes, and together, we can give our park back.
    we
  2. Name the viewpoint. We is first-person plural, so it speaks for a group.
    first person plural
  3. Explain the effect. The reader is included, so the reader feels part of the solution.
    part of the solution
  4. Write the answer.
    first person plural, which includes the reader in the problem and the solution

Check. The viewpoint includes the reader. ✓

Worked example 2.4.3
How does the structure of text 1 change from start to end?

Method. Compare paragraph 1 with paragraph 3.

  1. Paragraph 1. The market is busy, with colour and movement.
    busy
  2. Paragraph 3. The crowd thins and the street is silent.
    silent
  3. Describe the change. The structure moves from busy to quiet.
    from busy to quiet
  4. Write the answer.
    from a busy market to a quiet, empty street

Check. The change from busy to quiet is shown. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: "I" and "we" are both first person, but "we" speaks for a group. Name the pronoun and the group it includes.

Exam tip

Exam tip. For structure, name the change, then say where it happens (which paragraph), then what it does for the reader.

Exercise 2D  Practice: viewpoint and structure

1
FWhich viewpoint does She watched the empty street for a long moment use? Choose one: first person or third person.
2
FWhich viewpoint does We pay our taxes use? Choose one: first person or third person.
3
FCopy the pronoun in Together, we can give our park back. that includes the reader.
4
FHow does the structure of text 1 change from the start to the end? Explain.
5
RWhy might the writer of text 1 end on silence? Explain in one sentence.
6
FWhich paragraph of text 2 makes the call to action? Choose one: paragraph 1, paragraph 3 or paragraph 4.
7
PSWhat is the effect of the first-person pronoun we in text 2? Explain in one sentence.
8
PSCan the narrator of text 1 tell what the vendor is thinking? Choose one: yes or no.
9
RExplain how the structure of text 2 moves from the problem to the solution.
10
FWhich paragraph of text 1 describes the empty street? Write the number.
11
FAnswer both parts about the openings of the texts.
(a)Copy the first word of text 1.
(b)Copy the first word of text 2.
12
RCompare the viewpoint in the two texts. Which is more personal, and why?
2.5

Tone, and evaluating the effect of the writer's choices

Year 7
Judge the tone of a text and evaluate the effect of a writer's choices (KS3 reading, R4)
Video lesson: Tone, and evaluating the effect of the writer's choicesComing soon
Story. A reader must decide how well a writer has done the job. Is the market text vivid? Does the park text persuade? Judging a text means giving a clear view, with reasons.

Tone is the mood or attitude the writer creates, such as calm, urgent or playful. To evaluate a choice, give a judgement (how well it works), a reason (why it works) and, if you can, a limit (where it could be better).

Key ideas

  • Tone is the mood or attitude the writer creates.
  • Evaluate: judge how well a choice works, and give a reason.
  • A good evaluation gives both a strength and a weakness, with evidence.
Worked example 2.5.1
What is the tone of paragraph 3 of text 1?

Method. Look at the words and the pace of the paragraph.

  1. Look at the words. Slowly, quietly, silence, one by one.
    quietly, one by one
  2. Look at the pace. Short, steady sentences slow the reader.
    steady
  3. Name the tone. The tone is calm and reflective.
    calm and reflective
  4. Write the answer.
    calm and reflective

Check. The tone matches the words and pace. ✓

Worked example 2.5.2
What is the tone of text 2?

Method. Look at the commands and the questions.

  1. Look at the commands. Pick up one item today.
    Pick up one item today
  2. Look at the questions. Who decided that this was acceptable?
    Who decided
  3. Name the tone. The tone is urgent and persuasive.
    urgent and persuasive
  4. Write the answer.
    urgent and persuasive

Check. The commands and questions create urgency. ✓

Worked example 2.5.3
Evaluate the word shameful in text 2. Is it effective? Give one reason.

Method. Give a judgement, then a reason.

  1. Judgement. The word is effective.
    effective
  2. Reason. It makes the reader feel guilt, and so the reader wants to act.
    feel guilt
  3. Judgement with reason. Yes, because it makes the reader feel guilty about a problem they can fix.
    guilty about a problem
  4. Write the answer.
    yes, because it makes the reader feel guilty about a problem they can fix

Check. The judgement is supported by a reason. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: "it is good" is not an evaluation. Say why it works, and how it affects the reader.

Exam tip

Exam tip. Start an evaluation with your judgement, give a quotation as evidence, then a reason, and end with the effect.

Exercise 2E  Practice: tone and evaluation

1
FWhat is the tone of paragraph 3 of text 1? Write one word.
2
FWhich tone fits text 2? Choose one: urgent, relaxed or gloomy.
3
PSGive one piece of evidence for the urgent tone of text 2, and explain how it creates urgency.
4
REvaluate the persuasive text. Is it effective for a reader who already cares about parks? Give one reason.
5
RIs the word shameful an effective choice for a persuasive writer? Give a reason.
6
FIs cheerful a positive or a negative word? Write one word.
7
PSWhich word is the most emotive, to make the reader feel strongly? Choose one: rubbish, bins or paths.
8
REvaluate the list of three in paragraph 2 of text 2. Does it help the argument? Explain one reason.
9
RGive one strength and one weakness of the persuasive writer's use of we.
10
PSWhat tone does Silence crept back onto the cobbles create? Explain in one sentence.
11
PSAnswer both parts about tone.
(a)What tone does Everyone seemed to be moving at once create? Write one word.
(b)Copy the command in text 2 that creates the most urgency.
12
REvaluate the ending of text 2: does the final sentence work? Give two reasons.

Chapter summary

SkillMethod
ConnotationThe suggested meaning of a word, beyond its literal meaning; explain what it suggests and its effect.
ImagerySimile (like or as), metaphor (one thing is another), personification (a human action for a thing); say what each makes the reader picture.
Sentence length and typeA short sentence creates emphasis; a list of three builds; a rhetorical question makes the reader think.
ViewpointFirst person (I, we) or third person (he, she, they); say whom the pronoun includes.
StructureThe order of ideas, such as busy to quiet, or problem to solution.
Tone and evaluationName the tone with evidence; judge how well a choice works, with a reason.

Can you…?

  • I can separate the literal meaning of a word from its connotation
  • I can name a device and explain its effect on the reader
  • I can explain the effect of sentence length and sentence type
  • I can identify viewpoint and explain what it does
  • I can evaluate a writer's choices and give a reasoned judgement

Key terms

denotation
the literal, dictionary meaning of a word
connotation
an idea or feeling a word suggests
imagery
language that creates a picture in the reader's mind
rhetorical question
a question asked for effect, which does not need an answer
viewpoint
the position from which a text is told, such as first or third person
tone
the mood or attitude the writer creates
evaluate
to judge how well something works, with reasons

Exercise 2Z  Check-up

1
Name the device in like tired eyes closing.
2
What does shameful suggest, beyond its literal meaning? Use the phrase "It is a shameful one".
3
What is the effect of lanterns swinging like small moons? Explain in one sentence.
4
How many sentences are in paragraph 2 of text 1?
5
What sentence type is Who decided that this was acceptable? Choose one: statement, question or command.
6
What is the effect of This is not a small problem.? Explain in one sentence.
7
Which viewpoint does Together, we can give our park back use? Choose one: first person or third person.
8
How does the structure of text 1 change from start to end?
9
What is the tone of text 2? Write one word.
10
Evaluate the phrase buried under rubbish. Is it effective? Give one reason.

Total 17 marks. Allow about 17 minutes.

Exercise 2X  Practice test questions

1
FRead this phrase: "a river of colour". Name the device.[1 mark]
2
FRead this sentence: "Silence crept back onto the cobbles." Name the device.[1 mark]
3
RRead this phrase: "lanterns swinging like small moons". Name the device and explain its effect in one sentence.[2 marks]
4
FRead this sentence: "Who decided that this was acceptable?" What sentence type is it? Write one word.[1 mark]
5
RRead this sentence: "This is not a small problem." Explain the effect of its short length.[2 marks]
6
PSRead this phrase: "buried under rubbish". What does buried suggest? Write one or two words.[1 mark]
7
FRead this text: "Music drifted from somewhere behind the stalls. A man shouted prices, quick and cheerful. Steam rose from a pan of noodles." How many sentences are there?[1 mark]
8
RRead this sentence: "Think of the ducks that choke on plastic, the children who play near broken glass, and the grandparents who no longer sit on the benches." Explain the effect of this list of three.[3 marks]
9
RRead this sentence: "We pay our taxes, we love our green spaces, and yet we allow them to be buried under rubbish." What viewpoint does the writer use, and what does it do?[2 marks]
10
RRead this sentence: "Pick up one item today." Is this a good way to end a persuasive paragraph? Give two reasons.[3 marks]
← Chapter 1: Reading fiction: inference and evidenceChapter 3: Reading poetry: form, imagery and sound →

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